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The Neuroesthetic Potential of Chimpanzees
Alexander Martin
Georgia Military College
The Neuroesthetic Potential of Chimpanzees
Background
That humans are capable of highly sophisticated aesthetic appreciation is unquestionable. The human nervous system is highly complex, and is capable of amazing cognitive and regulatory feats. Scientists who study the brain have rightly looked into the neural processes that result in what we call aesthetic appreciation. However, relatively little research has been done into the capacity for other animals to appreciate art, or even the effect that art has on an animal's brain. Another subject of intense research is the role of genetics upon behavior. While it is generally accepted that behavior is shaped by a blend of "nature," or genetics, and "nurture," or environmental stimuli, the precise role each plays in a given behavioral pattern is still under investigation. The role that genetics plays in artistic taste, for example, has thus far been ignored. This paper, and the experiment suggested will explore these two questions, as applied to chimpanzees, homo sapiens' closest relative of the great ape family. First, the phrase "sophisticated aesthetic appreciation" must be defined. In this paper, aesthetic appreciation will be defined as the neuroanatomical reactions arising from exposure to a beautiful, artistic stimulus and the resultant behavioral responses. The adjective "sophisticated" indicates appreciation of artistic pieces beyond what may currently be considered "reasonable" for nonhuman cognitive understanding. For example, rather than simply recognizing colors and simple shapes, a sophisticated appreciation would indicate enjoyment and recognition of abstract artistic representations, or the use of subtle technical techniques, and at an even higher level of sophistication, the ability to derive symbolic meaning from the work. Thus, the primary focus of experimentation will be on the neural responses elicited by artistic or aesthetic stimuli. I hypothesize that chimpanzees are capable of sophisticated aesthetic appreciation, and that genetics plays a significant role in shaping the aesthetic taste of a given individual.
The answers to these questions could potentially provide a wealth of information. Aesthetic appreciation is considered to be largely a human phenomenon, particularly with regards to highly sophisticated or complex appreciation. However, the similarity of the chimpanzee and human brain structures (pp. Rilling, et al, 2007)is within reasonable limits to assume that chimpanzees are capable of similar aesthetic appreciation. This will help to understand the similarities and differences of humans and chimpanzees. Also, if such appreciation can be developed in chimpanzees, the potential exists for a greater understanding of how it can also be developed in humans. The role of genetics is also a rather ambiguous realm, largely due to the lack of research in this particular circumstance. It is, however, highly relevant. Darwin himself remarked, for example, that the mating rituals of birds indicate that they have a highly developed aesthetic taste. Likewise, recent research indicates that an appreciation of facial beauty is a key component of humans' choice of mate, as an indication of "phenotypic and genotypic quality of the bearer" (Senior, 2003). So, while aesthetic appreciation has a well-documented evolutionary base, the specific role that genetics play in particular tastes, ranging from facial and physical beauty of potential mates to artwork, is under evaluated. Understanding this would shed light on the role of genetics on such phenomena. Of particular interest is any influence on the appreciation of art, which "terminat[es] on the aesthetic object" (Smith, 2005) or, in other words, appears to have no purpose other than to evoke pleasure. If genetics have a role in this, the implications for such areas of study as the emergence of personality, behavioral genetics, and the relationship between genetics and the mind are very important.
There were a number of factors that shaped my consideration of this question. First, it is generally accepted that human endeavors, including art and aesthetics, became more sophisticated after the advent of agriculture and animal domestication. This allowed for leisure time, and is considered to be the beginning of civilization. It seems reasonable to assume that with a similar environment, animals may be able to develop their appreciation of art to higher levels of sophistication due to their survival needs being met. I observed this idea with my own cats. Both are well taken care of, and both exhibit what seem to be human-like tendencies toward affection and behavior. Also, seeing animals such as tigers caring for pig babies while in domestic settings seemed to support this idea.
Research indicates that my question is not only a reasonable one, but a timely one. The subject of neuroesthetics is a recent discipline that seeks to understand the experience of art through the neurological activity that can be recorded and visualized, often with the use of an functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) machine, and to determine the actual neurological activity of the brain when viewing art (Neuroestetica)At present, neuroesthetics focuses on the visual brain, using art as a means to discern the "laws of the visual brain" (Zeki). These studies have thus far been exclusively conducted on the human brain. The prefrontal cortex is considered to be very important in the visual processing of aesthetic perception (Camilo J. Cela-Conde, 2004), although other areas of the brain, such as the bilateral insula, have been observed, and are assessed to be related to the emotional content of the viewing of art (CG Cupchick, 2009). Vartanian and Goel (Oshin Vartanian, 2003) have also concluded that aesthetic preference can be determined by visualizing various structures in the frontal, limbic, paralimbic, and visual cortex. In regards to the research that I propose, Cela-Conde et al. have suggested that art appreciation is exclusive to humans, citing the "explosion of Art" that occurred among human cultures about 40,000 years ago (Camilo J. Cela-Conde, 2004). However, a study conducted by Rilling, et al., compared the wakeful, resting condition of humans and chimpanzees. Their findings suggested that chimpanzees exhibit activity in the areas of the brain which are associated with mentalizing, self-related episodic memory retrieval, conceptual and semantic processing, and inner speech (James K. Rilling, 2007). In contrast, their research suggested the possibility that chimpanzees may be capable of mental self-projection (i.e., considering the past or future), and emotionally-laden episodic memory retrieval (James K. Rilling, 2007). Furthermore, Sapolsky illustrates that animals do produce culture, as it is used within a human context (Sapolsky, 2006). Using the Five Factor Model of personality, Gosling and John have demonstrated that animals of twelve species, including cats, dogs, and chimpanzees, have at least several common personality factors. Chimpanzees were found to be the only species, aside from humans, to possess the factor of conscientiousness, which includes following norms and rules, thinking before acting, and other functions related to impulse control (Samuel D. Gosling, 1999)While the existence of animal personality and culture is not specifically related to their ability to appreciate art, it does show that much of what is thought of as exclusively human phenomena do extend to other species. As for the genetic influence on aesthetic taste, Frazzetto has demonstrated that by breaking psychiatric disorders into categories of "endophenotypes," or subcategories of phenotypes which include heart rate, neural activity, and hormonal changes, the geneticist can more easily investigate genetic influence of the disorder in question (Frazzetto, 2009). This implies that genes do influence behavior, via genes. He does stress, however, the complexity of behavioral actualization, and the importance of social context in that process (Frazzetto, 2009). Uher has linked personality emergence with a reservoir of successful adaptations which influences evolution and speciation (Uher, 2008). Linking this idea to the previous discussion of the relationship of the brain to aesthetic perception and appreciation, and the evolutionary forces that caused aesthetics to arise, such as mating rituals, the genetic basis for differing aesthetic taste becomes possible.
If my primary hypothesis proves to be false, there are a number of other possibilities. First, the degree of sophistication and the degree of genetic influence on taste are variable. While I hypothesize "a high degree of sophistication and genetic influence," it may be that one or the other is considered "low" while the other "high." This variability will have specific benchmarks delineated in the experimental procedure. Another hypothesis would be that chimpanzees are incapable of aesthetic appreciation at any level, which would render the genetic influence hypothesis null and void.
Experimental Design
The literature available on neuroesthetics provides an excellent methodological model. The use of fMRI scans has already proven of tremendous value in studying the neurological processes that produce aesthetic experience. An fMRI also provides objective means of testing the degree of sophistication of which one is capable has already been used, as in the experiments of Cupchick and Vartanian and Goel. Thus, an fMRI machine will be used in this experiment.
A pair of chimpanzee twin infants must be acquired. One will remain with its chimpanzee parents, within the chimpanzee society. The other twin will be sent to live with a human surrogate parents. The human parents will treat the chimpanzee as they would a human child, with a special emphasis on exposing it to visual art of all types. The rationale for this is similar to that used to explain the development of civilization within the human population. With a greater degree of luxury and more complex stimulation, the brain of the chimpanzee being parented by the humans should develop more quickly. Also, the environmental factors, which include the exposure to art and the surrogates will hypothetically have an effect on the cognitive capacities of the chimpanzee.
Throughout the lifetime of the two chimpanzees, periodic fMRI scans will be conducted. In early life, these will take place only annually, due to the brain's development and the high probability for error. During the scans, the chimpanzees will be shown a series of artworks of various styles and mediums, including painting, digital art, and sculptures. In addition, various schools of art must be represented, such as abstract, realist, expressionist, pre-Raphaelite, and archaic, to name a few.
Sophistication of appreciation will be determined by a focus on the visual cortex of the chimpanzee, as well as the emotional centers associated with aesthetic experience. The brain activity of the two will be compared; a greater degree of activity in these areas of the brain will be determined as greater ability and sophistication.
Preference will also be tested. Using the criteria set forth by Vartanian and Goel, preference for each piece of art will be determined by corresponding activity in these areas of the brain. Analysis will determine the degree of similarity of taste by determining the degree of similarity among preferred pieces of art. Similarity will be broken down into the following categories: School (such as abstract or realist, etc.); Subject (human or geometric figure, image of object such as a building or fruit, etc.); Color scheme (primary colors); Medium (Traditional painting or digital art, etc.). If a preference of any of these broad categories is detected, that similarity will be subject to similar testing criteria, which of necessity must be determined in the event of such a detection.
As the chimpanzees age, the frequency of these tests will increase, due to the brains greater development. Each test will be separate; there will be one test for sophistication, and one for preference, although they will be administered in the same session.
While I am currently unable to conduct this research, I will be contacting the Yerkes National Primate Research Center, and the Gorilla Foundation. Yerkes has conducted tests on the neurology of chimpanzees, as well as studies on emotional communication in chimpanzees, both of which would help to refine this research proposal. The Gorilla Foundation was home to Koko and Michal, two gorillas who were capable of communicating via sign language, and Michael painted impressionist paintings. Any research that they have conducted with regards to Michael's paintings, specifically would be of tremendous help to further understanding this subject.
Budget
The total cost of this research will include per diem, travel costs, and the cost of the fMRI scans. The typical cost of an fMRI scan ranges from $1,100 to $2,700 (Costhelper). The nearest fMRI is in Orlando, FL (Orlando Regional Medical Center). The cost of travel to FL is about $335 roundtrip flight with an additional $100 dollars per day for hotel costs (Expedia). While in Orlando, a rental car will be necessary, which will cost approximately $21 per day (Orbitz). The cost of art must also be considered. The price is too variable to attempt to pin down, but only art that is considered exemplary of its category will be chosen. Due to the nature of this experiment, at least four researchers are necessary, the two surrogates, and two researchers (one for each chimpanzee), all of which will require compensation. Access to the chimpanzees must also be secured, which may require expenses.
I have selected only the elements of this experiment which are essential, such as the fMRI and two chimpanzees. As such, the budget is likewise at its absolute minimum. The loss of funding for any of these elements would preclude the possibility of the experiment being performed.
References
Camilo J. Cela-Conde, G. M. (2004). Activity of the prefrontal cortex in the human visual aesthetic perception. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences .
CG Cupchick, O. V. (2009). Viewing artworks: contributions of cognitive control and perceptual facilitationi to aesthetic experience. Brain and Cognition , 84-91.
Costhelper. (n.d.). Retrieved May 4, 2010, from costhelper.com: www.costhelper.com/cost/health…
Expedia. (n.d.). Retrieved May 4, 2010, from expedia.com: www.expedia.com/Hotels?rfrr=-9…
Frazzetto, G. (2009). Genetics of behaviour and psychiatric disorders: from the laboratory to society and back. Current Science , 1555-1563.
James K. Rilling, S. K. (2007). A comparison of resting-state brain activity in humans and chimpanzees. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science .
Neuroestetica. (n.d.). Retrieved May 6, 2010, from neuroestetica.org: www.neuroestetica.it/
Orbitz. (n.d.). Retrieved May 4, 2010, from orbitz.com: www.orbitz.com/App/ViewCarResu…
Orlando Regional Medical Center. (n.d.). Retrieved May 2, 2010, from orlandohealth.com: www.orlandohealth.com/orlandor…
Oshin Vartanian, V. G. (2003). Neuroanatomical correlates of aesthetic preference for paintings. Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuropsychology , 893-897.
Samuel D. Gosling, O. P. (1999). Personality Dimensions in Nonhuman Animals: A Cross-Species Review. Current Directions in Psychological Science , 69-75.
Sapolsky, R. M. (2006). Social Cultures among Nonhuman Primates. Current Anthropology , 641-656.
Senior, C. (2003). Beauty in the Brain of the Beholder. Neuron , 525-528.
Smith, C. (2005). Evolutionary Neurobiology and Aesthetics. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine , 17-30.
Uher, J. (2008). Comparative Personality Research: Methodological Approaches. European Journal of Personality , 427-455.
Camilo J. Cela-Conde, G. M. (2004). Activity of the prefrontal cortex in the human visual aesthetic perception. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences .
CG Cupchick, O. V. (2009). Viewing artworks: contributions of cognitive control and perceptual facilitationi to aesthetic experience. Brain and Cognition , 84-91.
Costhelper. (n.d.). Retrieved May 4, 2010, from costhelper.com: www.costhelper.com/cost/health…
Expedia. (n.d.). Retrieved May 4, 2010, from expedia.com: www.expedia.com/Hotels?rfrr=-9…
Frazzetto, G. (2009). Genetics of behaviour and psychiatric disorders: from the laboratory to society and back. Current Science , 1555-1563.
James K. Rilling, S. K. (2007). A comparison of resting-state brain activity in humans and chimpanzees. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science .
Neuroestetica. (n.d.). Retrieved May 6, 2010, from neuroestetica.org: www.neuroestetica.it/
Orbitz. (n.d.). Retrieved May 4, 2010, from orbitz.com: www.orbitz.com/App/ViewCarResu…
Orlando Regional Medical Center. (n.d.). Retrieved May 2, 2010, from orlandohealth.com: www.orlandohealth.com/orlandor…
Oshin Vartanian, V. G. (2003). Neuroanatomical correlates of aesthetic preference for paintings. Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuropsychology , 893-897.
Samuel D. Gosling, O. P. (1999). Personality Dimensions in Nonhuman Animals: A Cross-Species Review. Current Directions in Psychological Science , 69-75.
Sapolsky, R. M. (2006). Social Cultures among Nonhuman Primates. Current Anthropology , 641-656.
Senior, C. (2003). Beauty in the Brain of the Beholder. Neuron , 525-528.
Smith, C. (2005). Evolutionary Neurobiology and Aesthetics. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine , 17-30.
Uher, J. (2008). Comparative Personality Research: Methodological Approaches. European Journal of Personality , 427-455.
Alexander Martin
Georgia Military College
The Neuroesthetic Potential of Chimpanzees
Background
That humans are capable of highly sophisticated aesthetic appreciation is unquestionable. The human nervous system is highly complex, and is capable of amazing cognitive and regulatory feats. Scientists who study the brain have rightly looked into the neural processes that result in what we call aesthetic appreciation. However, relatively little research has been done into the capacity for other animals to appreciate art, or even the effect that art has on an animal's brain. Another subject of intense research is the role of genetics upon behavior. While it is generally accepted that behavior is shaped by a blend of "nature," or genetics, and "nurture," or environmental stimuli, the precise role each plays in a given behavioral pattern is still under investigation. The role that genetics plays in artistic taste, for example, has thus far been ignored. This paper, and the experiment suggested will explore these two questions, as applied to chimpanzees, homo sapiens' closest relative of the great ape family. First, the phrase "sophisticated aesthetic appreciation" must be defined. In this paper, aesthetic appreciation will be defined as the neuroanatomical reactions arising from exposure to a beautiful, artistic stimulus and the resultant behavioral responses. The adjective "sophisticated" indicates appreciation of artistic pieces beyond what may currently be considered "reasonable" for nonhuman cognitive understanding. For example, rather than simply recognizing colors and simple shapes, a sophisticated appreciation would indicate enjoyment and recognition of abstract artistic representations, or the use of subtle technical techniques, and at an even higher level of sophistication, the ability to derive symbolic meaning from the work. Thus, the primary focus of experimentation will be on the neural responses elicited by artistic or aesthetic stimuli. I hypothesize that chimpanzees are capable of sophisticated aesthetic appreciation, and that genetics plays a significant role in shaping the aesthetic taste of a given individual.
The answers to these questions could potentially provide a wealth of information. Aesthetic appreciation is considered to be largely a human phenomenon, particularly with regards to highly sophisticated or complex appreciation. However, the similarity of the chimpanzee and human brain structures (pp. Rilling, et al, 2007)is within reasonable limits to assume that chimpanzees are capable of similar aesthetic appreciation. This will help to understand the similarities and differences of humans and chimpanzees. Also, if such appreciation can be developed in chimpanzees, the potential exists for a greater understanding of how it can also be developed in humans. The role of genetics is also a rather ambiguous realm, largely due to the lack of research in this particular circumstance. It is, however, highly relevant. Darwin himself remarked, for example, that the mating rituals of birds indicate that they have a highly developed aesthetic taste. Likewise, recent research indicates that an appreciation of facial beauty is a key component of humans' choice of mate, as an indication of "phenotypic and genotypic quality of the bearer" (Senior, 2003). So, while aesthetic appreciation has a well-documented evolutionary base, the specific role that genetics play in particular tastes, ranging from facial and physical beauty of potential mates to artwork, is under evaluated. Understanding this would shed light on the role of genetics on such phenomena. Of particular interest is any influence on the appreciation of art, which "terminat[es] on the aesthetic object" (Smith, 2005) or, in other words, appears to have no purpose other than to evoke pleasure. If genetics have a role in this, the implications for such areas of study as the emergence of personality, behavioral genetics, and the relationship between genetics and the mind are very important.
There were a number of factors that shaped my consideration of this question. First, it is generally accepted that human endeavors, including art and aesthetics, became more sophisticated after the advent of agriculture and animal domestication. This allowed for leisure time, and is considered to be the beginning of civilization. It seems reasonable to assume that with a similar environment, animals may be able to develop their appreciation of art to higher levels of sophistication due to their survival needs being met. I observed this idea with my own cats. Both are well taken care of, and both exhibit what seem to be human-like tendencies toward affection and behavior. Also, seeing animals such as tigers caring for pig babies while in domestic settings seemed to support this idea.
Research indicates that my question is not only a reasonable one, but a timely one. The subject of neuroesthetics is a recent discipline that seeks to understand the experience of art through the neurological activity that can be recorded and visualized, often with the use of an functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) machine, and to determine the actual neurological activity of the brain when viewing art (Neuroestetica)At present, neuroesthetics focuses on the visual brain, using art as a means to discern the "laws of the visual brain" (Zeki). These studies have thus far been exclusively conducted on the human brain. The prefrontal cortex is considered to be very important in the visual processing of aesthetic perception (Camilo J. Cela-Conde, 2004), although other areas of the brain, such as the bilateral insula, have been observed, and are assessed to be related to the emotional content of the viewing of art (CG Cupchick, 2009). Vartanian and Goel (Oshin Vartanian, 2003) have also concluded that aesthetic preference can be determined by visualizing various structures in the frontal, limbic, paralimbic, and visual cortex. In regards to the research that I propose, Cela-Conde et al. have suggested that art appreciation is exclusive to humans, citing the "explosion of Art" that occurred among human cultures about 40,000 years ago (Camilo J. Cela-Conde, 2004). However, a study conducted by Rilling, et al., compared the wakeful, resting condition of humans and chimpanzees. Their findings suggested that chimpanzees exhibit activity in the areas of the brain which are associated with mentalizing, self-related episodic memory retrieval, conceptual and semantic processing, and inner speech (James K. Rilling, 2007). In contrast, their research suggested the possibility that chimpanzees may be capable of mental self-projection (i.e., considering the past or future), and emotionally-laden episodic memory retrieval (James K. Rilling, 2007). Furthermore, Sapolsky illustrates that animals do produce culture, as it is used within a human context (Sapolsky, 2006). Using the Five Factor Model of personality, Gosling and John have demonstrated that animals of twelve species, including cats, dogs, and chimpanzees, have at least several common personality factors. Chimpanzees were found to be the only species, aside from humans, to possess the factor of conscientiousness, which includes following norms and rules, thinking before acting, and other functions related to impulse control (Samuel D. Gosling, 1999)While the existence of animal personality and culture is not specifically related to their ability to appreciate art, it does show that much of what is thought of as exclusively human phenomena do extend to other species. As for the genetic influence on aesthetic taste, Frazzetto has demonstrated that by breaking psychiatric disorders into categories of "endophenotypes," or subcategories of phenotypes which include heart rate, neural activity, and hormonal changes, the geneticist can more easily investigate genetic influence of the disorder in question (Frazzetto, 2009). This implies that genes do influence behavior, via genes. He does stress, however, the complexity of behavioral actualization, and the importance of social context in that process (Frazzetto, 2009). Uher has linked personality emergence with a reservoir of successful adaptations which influences evolution and speciation (Uher, 2008). Linking this idea to the previous discussion of the relationship of the brain to aesthetic perception and appreciation, and the evolutionary forces that caused aesthetics to arise, such as mating rituals, the genetic basis for differing aesthetic taste becomes possible.
If my primary hypothesis proves to be false, there are a number of other possibilities. First, the degree of sophistication and the degree of genetic influence on taste are variable. While I hypothesize "a high degree of sophistication and genetic influence," it may be that one or the other is considered "low" while the other "high." This variability will have specific benchmarks delineated in the experimental procedure. Another hypothesis would be that chimpanzees are incapable of aesthetic appreciation at any level, which would render the genetic influence hypothesis null and void.
Experimental Design
The literature available on neuroesthetics provides an excellent methodological model. The use of fMRI scans has already proven of tremendous value in studying the neurological processes that produce aesthetic experience. An fMRI also provides objective means of testing the degree of sophistication of which one is capable has already been used, as in the experiments of Cupchick and Vartanian and Goel. Thus, an fMRI machine will be used in this experiment.
A pair of chimpanzee twin infants must be acquired. One will remain with its chimpanzee parents, within the chimpanzee society. The other twin will be sent to live with a human surrogate parents. The human parents will treat the chimpanzee as they would a human child, with a special emphasis on exposing it to visual art of all types. The rationale for this is similar to that used to explain the development of civilization within the human population. With a greater degree of luxury and more complex stimulation, the brain of the chimpanzee being parented by the humans should develop more quickly. Also, the environmental factors, which include the exposure to art and the surrogates will hypothetically have an effect on the cognitive capacities of the chimpanzee.
Throughout the lifetime of the two chimpanzees, periodic fMRI scans will be conducted. In early life, these will take place only annually, due to the brain's development and the high probability for error. During the scans, the chimpanzees will be shown a series of artworks of various styles and mediums, including painting, digital art, and sculptures. In addition, various schools of art must be represented, such as abstract, realist, expressionist, pre-Raphaelite, and archaic, to name a few.
Sophistication of appreciation will be determined by a focus on the visual cortex of the chimpanzee, as well as the emotional centers associated with aesthetic experience. The brain activity of the two will be compared; a greater degree of activity in these areas of the brain will be determined as greater ability and sophistication.
Preference will also be tested. Using the criteria set forth by Vartanian and Goel, preference for each piece of art will be determined by corresponding activity in these areas of the brain. Analysis will determine the degree of similarity of taste by determining the degree of similarity among preferred pieces of art. Similarity will be broken down into the following categories: School (such as abstract or realist, etc.); Subject (human or geometric figure, image of object such as a building or fruit, etc.); Color scheme (primary colors); Medium (Traditional painting or digital art, etc.). If a preference of any of these broad categories is detected, that similarity will be subject to similar testing criteria, which of necessity must be determined in the event of such a detection.
As the chimpanzees age, the frequency of these tests will increase, due to the brains greater development. Each test will be separate; there will be one test for sophistication, and one for preference, although they will be administered in the same session.
While I am currently unable to conduct this research, I will be contacting the Yerkes National Primate Research Center, and the Gorilla Foundation. Yerkes has conducted tests on the neurology of chimpanzees, as well as studies on emotional communication in chimpanzees, both of which would help to refine this research proposal. The Gorilla Foundation was home to Koko and Michal, two gorillas who were capable of communicating via sign language, and Michael painted impressionist paintings. Any research that they have conducted with regards to Michael's paintings, specifically would be of tremendous help to further understanding this subject.
Budget
The total cost of this research will include per diem, travel costs, and the cost of the fMRI scans. The typical cost of an fMRI scan ranges from $1,100 to $2,700 (Costhelper). The nearest fMRI is in Orlando, FL (Orlando Regional Medical Center). The cost of travel to FL is about $335 roundtrip flight with an additional $100 dollars per day for hotel costs (Expedia). While in Orlando, a rental car will be necessary, which will cost approximately $21 per day (Orbitz). The cost of art must also be considered. The price is too variable to attempt to pin down, but only art that is considered exemplary of its category will be chosen. Due to the nature of this experiment, at least four researchers are necessary, the two surrogates, and two researchers (one for each chimpanzee), all of which will require compensation. Access to the chimpanzees must also be secured, which may require expenses.
I have selected only the elements of this experiment which are essential, such as the fMRI and two chimpanzees. As such, the budget is likewise at its absolute minimum. The loss of funding for any of these elements would preclude the possibility of the experiment being performed.
References
Camilo J. Cela-Conde, G. M. (2004). Activity of the prefrontal cortex in the human visual aesthetic perception. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences .
CG Cupchick, O. V. (2009). Viewing artworks: contributions of cognitive control and perceptual facilitationi to aesthetic experience. Brain and Cognition , 84-91.
Costhelper. (n.d.). Retrieved May 4, 2010, from costhelper.com: www.costhelper.com/cost/health…
Expedia. (n.d.). Retrieved May 4, 2010, from expedia.com: www.expedia.com/Hotels?rfrr=-9…
Frazzetto, G. (2009). Genetics of behaviour and psychiatric disorders: from the laboratory to society and back. Current Science , 1555-1563.
James K. Rilling, S. K. (2007). A comparison of resting-state brain activity in humans and chimpanzees. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science .
Neuroestetica. (n.d.). Retrieved May 6, 2010, from neuroestetica.org: www.neuroestetica.it/
Orbitz. (n.d.). Retrieved May 4, 2010, from orbitz.com: www.orbitz.com/App/ViewCarResu…
Orlando Regional Medical Center. (n.d.). Retrieved May 2, 2010, from orlandohealth.com: www.orlandohealth.com/orlandor…
Oshin Vartanian, V. G. (2003). Neuroanatomical correlates of aesthetic preference for paintings. Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuropsychology , 893-897.
Samuel D. Gosling, O. P. (1999). Personality Dimensions in Nonhuman Animals: A Cross-Species Review. Current Directions in Psychological Science , 69-75.
Sapolsky, R. M. (2006). Social Cultures among Nonhuman Primates. Current Anthropology , 641-656.
Senior, C. (2003). Beauty in the Brain of the Beholder. Neuron , 525-528.
Smith, C. (2005). Evolutionary Neurobiology and Aesthetics. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine , 17-30.
Uher, J. (2008). Comparative Personality Research: Methodological Approaches. European Journal of Personality , 427-455.
Camilo J. Cela-Conde, G. M. (2004). Activity of the prefrontal cortex in the human visual aesthetic perception. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences .
CG Cupchick, O. V. (2009). Viewing artworks: contributions of cognitive control and perceptual facilitationi to aesthetic experience. Brain and Cognition , 84-91.
Costhelper. (n.d.). Retrieved May 4, 2010, from costhelper.com: www.costhelper.com/cost/health…
Expedia. (n.d.). Retrieved May 4, 2010, from expedia.com: www.expedia.com/Hotels?rfrr=-9…
Frazzetto, G. (2009). Genetics of behaviour and psychiatric disorders: from the laboratory to society and back. Current Science , 1555-1563.
James K. Rilling, S. K. (2007). A comparison of resting-state brain activity in humans and chimpanzees. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science .
Neuroestetica. (n.d.). Retrieved May 6, 2010, from neuroestetica.org: www.neuroestetica.it/
Orbitz. (n.d.). Retrieved May 4, 2010, from orbitz.com: www.orbitz.com/App/ViewCarResu…
Orlando Regional Medical Center. (n.d.). Retrieved May 2, 2010, from orlandohealth.com: www.orlandohealth.com/orlandor…
Oshin Vartanian, V. G. (2003). Neuroanatomical correlates of aesthetic preference for paintings. Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuropsychology , 893-897.
Samuel D. Gosling, O. P. (1999). Personality Dimensions in Nonhuman Animals: A Cross-Species Review. Current Directions in Psychological Science , 69-75.
Sapolsky, R. M. (2006). Social Cultures among Nonhuman Primates. Current Anthropology , 641-656.
Senior, C. (2003). Beauty in the Brain of the Beholder. Neuron , 525-528.
Smith, C. (2005). Evolutionary Neurobiology and Aesthetics. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine , 17-30.
Uher, J. (2008). Comparative Personality Research: Methodological Approaches. European Journal of Personality , 427-455.
A research proposal I wrote for my Biology 212 class.
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The literature available on neuroesthetics provides an excellent methodological model. The use of fMRI scans has already proven of tremendous value in studying the neurological processes that produce aesthetic experience. so It is really an fantastic article with lots of information.
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